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FREEDOMWAYS     FOURTH QUARTER 1969

religious specialist was the Shaman or medicine man. Again, the Pueblos are an exception (partial exceptions are also the Northwest Coast Indians and some Indians in the Southeastern United States). In general, however, religious organization was simple and there is no evidence that any group ever attempted to impose its system of beliefs or organization upon another. There was considerable borrowing, but no coercion to force the religion of one group on another. Within the local group — the village — the Pueblos did apparently force their members to participate in religious ceremonies. The Pueblos, because of their proximity to rather complex religious and political groups in Mexico (such as the Aztec) do seem to have been less tribal than others. 

Linguistic diversification is tremendous, yet there seems to be ample evidence that in terms of concepts and meaning, Indian languages were organized in a remarkable similar fashion. In the past, Indians simply learned one another's language when the need to communicate across linguistic barriers arose—an essentially common level of socio-cultural development (the tribal level) apparently made this possible. Languages are adjusted to the society and culture of its speakers and native Indian speakers have tended to have difficulty in adjusting to languages of highly complex cultures. But this is not a formidable task and the teacher with patience and understanding can develop good English speakers among Indians who retain knowledge of their own language. Bi-lingualism is no detriment—indeed the acquisition of several languages tends to enhance learning in other areas as well, in terms of latest findings of linguists and psychologists.

Indian society and culture have produced a series of values which contrast sharply from those of the dominant white group. In social interaction, Indians put the emphasis on good relations; good relations with relatives and good relations with neighbors. They stress the feeling or the emotional component rather than the verbal one. Characteristically, Indians are not extremely talkative. They convey their ideas and feelings largely through behavior rather than through speech. 

Important contrasts also exist between whites and Indians with respect to attitudes toward work or activity. Work is, of course, a positive value in American culture. American Indians, on the other hand, emphasize a more relaxed attitude toward work and activity. Success, competition, "progress," and the accumulation of wealth and property—these values important to white Americans, are generally absent among Indians. For American Indians who stress good interpersonal

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